Abrahamic Belief

This is the homepage for the Abrahamic Belief category, a subcategory of Belief.

Abraham was a patriarch common to Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, which are collectively known as the Abrahamic religions. Abraham is not regarded as a historical figure in secular studies. He is the subject of the Biblical narrative of the covenant of the pieces, in which God promises that his descendants would inherit the Promised Land of Canaan/Israel; this tradition is the basis for the view that the Jewish people are God’s chosen people. In Islam, Abraham (Ibrahim) is considered a major link in the chain of prophets stretching from Adam to Muhammad. In Christianity, he is considered an exemplar of faith because of his willingness to sacrifice his son Isaac at God’s command.

Judaism

Talmud: Hebrew for “instruction,” the Talmud is a codification of Jewish oral law, based on the Torah. It consists of the Mishnah (the laws themselves), and the Gemara (scholarly commentary on the Mishnah). The Gemara developed in two Judaic centers, Palestine and Babylonia, so there are two Talmuds (Palestinian and Babylonian), the latter considered more authoritative. Rabbis and lay scholars finished the Babylonian Talmud around 600.

Apocrypha: Protestants and Jews assign lower authority to the Apocrypha because it was written between 300 and 100 BC, but Catholics and Orthodox Christians consider the books that make up the Apocrypha to be “deuterocanonical,” meaning that they are just as important and divinely-inspired as other parts of the Old Testament/Hebrew Bible. “Apocryphal” in general means “something outside an accepted canon,” and, in particular, in ancient Greek it meant “hidden things.” Denominations differ as to which books make up the Apocrypha, but Tobit, Judith, 1 and 2 Maccabees, Wisdom, Sirach (or Ecclesiasticus), and Baruch are almost always included.

Holidays

Rosh HaShanah: Celebrated on the first and second days of the month of Tishrei, Rosh HaShanah marks the beginning of the Jewish civil year. (The beginning of the ecclesiastic year is Pesach.) It is believed that on Rosh HaShanah, people’s souls are judged, and God “temporarily” decides their fate for the coming year. Between Rosh HaShanah and Yom Kippur are the Ten Days of Repentance, when people are given a chance to reflect and repent. On Rosh HaShanah, it is customary to wear white clothes and eat apples with honey for a sweet year, and pomegranates to represent being as fruitful as its many seeds. Other customs include the blowing of the shofar (an instrument made from a ram’s horn) and a ceremony called Tashlich, in which Jews throw bread crumbs into running water to symbolize the cleansing of their sins.

Yom Kippur: Celebrated on the tenth day of Tishrei, it is the Jewish Day of Atonement; at the end of Yom Kippur, it is believed that one’s fate is sealed. Jews are required to abstain from eating, drinking, washing, and sex, as well as indulgent dress such as jewelry, make-up, and leather. One traditionally wears white clothes to symbolize purity. In the afternoon, the Book of Jonah is read. A full day of prayers begins with the Kol Nidre, which releases Jews from vows or promises to God. As on Rosh HaShanah, the shofar is blown unless it is Shabbat, in which case the shofar is blown only during the final service, N’ila (meaning “closing,” since the Temple gates were closed for this service). The Baruch Shem is said loudly on Yom Kippur because Moses heard angels praising God during the giving of the Torah. See Qwiz5’s article for more information

Sukkot: Celebrated on the 15th of Tishrei, Sukkot commemorates the sukkot (booths) that the Israelites lived in following the Exodus from Egypt; it also celebrates the harvest. Traditionally, Jews build outdoor booths in which they live and eat for seven days. In synagogue, four symbolic species-the palm, a yellow citrus called the etrog, the myrtle, and the willow-are waved in seven directions. Each night, in the sukkah, it is traditional to invite a Biblical figure to be the guest for that night.

Hanukkah: This festival lasts for eight days, starting on the 25th day of Kislev (the third month). It celebrates the victory of the small Maccabee army against the large Greek army of Antiochus, and the Maccabees’ recapture and re-purification of the Temple in Jerusalem (c. 168 BC). When they did so, they found only a small amount of oil to light the menorah in the Temple, and it would take a week to make more; miraculously, the oil burned for the full week. To commemorate this, on each night, observers use a “helper candle” called the shamash to light candles in a menorah (more properly called a chanukiah, as a menorah only has six branches while a chanukiah has nine): one candle (besides the shamash) on the first night, two on the second night, and so on. Furthermore, it is traditional to eat foods fried in oil; in the United States, potato pancakes called latkes are popular; in Israel, fried jelly donuts called sufganiyot are more common. Children play a game with a spinning a top called the dreidel, which contains the Hebrew letters that form the initials of a phrase that translates as “a great miracle happened there” (in Israel, they say “a great miracle happened here”). Exchanging presents is only a recent tradition developed in the U.S. to make Jewish children feel less left out as their Christian peers get Christmas presents (or, if you are cynical, the tradition was invented by toymakers to sell more toys).

Purim: Celebrated on the 14th of Adar (the sixth month) and commemorating the victory of the Jews-led by Esther and her cousin Mordechai-against Haman, who tried to destroy the Jews because of his anger at Mordechai. The story, recorded in the Book of Esther (read from a scroll, or megillah), takes place in Shushan, the capital city of the kingdom of the Persian King Ahasuerus (Achashvayrosh). On Purim, it is traditional to dress up, get drunk, give to charity, eat triangular pastries called hamentaschen (meaning “Haman’s ears” or “Haman’s pockets” in German), and exchange gifts (mishloach manot) with friends.

Passover (Pesach): Celebrated for seven or eight days beginning on the 15th day of Nissan (the seventh month), Passover commemorates the Exodus from Egypt. It is also the ancient Hebrew New Year. On the first day or two days, Jews have a festival dinner called a seder, where they retell the story of the Exodus from a book called a hagaddah. Jews are required to abstain from eating or owning leavened bread, and anything made with leaven, for the duration of the festival; matzah (a flat unleavened bread) is eaten instead. On Passover, the Song of Songs is recited. Passover also begins a period of seven weeks called the Omer, a period of semi-mourning that leads into Shavuot.

Shavuot: Celebrated on the sixth day of Sivan (the ninth month), the 50th day of the Omer that began after Passover. The word Shavuot means “weeks,” (seven weeks of the Omer), hence the name of the homologous Christian holiday Pentecost. Shavuot commemorates the giving of the Torah to the Israelites at Mount Sinai, as well as the beginning of the harvest in ancient Israel. Sukkot, Passover, and Shavuot are the three pilgrimages, when Jews would all gather at the Temple each year; on Shavuot, Jews would dedicate their first harvest fruits to the Temple. The Book of Ruth is read in synagogue on Shavuot, and it is traditional to study all night on this festival.

Tisha b’Av (the Ninth of the month Av): This is a day of mourning for the destructions of the First and Second Temples, as well as a number of other calamities in Jewish history. It is traditional to fast and to keep oneself in a solemn mood. The Book of Lamentations is read in a mournful tone, traditionally while sitting on the floor and with candles as the only lights.

Lifecycle events

Brit milah, or bris in Yiddish and in the dialect of Ashkenazic Jews (those of European but non-Iberian descent), is the ritual of circumcising Jewish boys, that is, removing the foreskin of the penis. This practice derives from God’s instruction to Abraham, after which Abraham circumcised himself and later circumcised his son Isaac. It is done to all boys when they reach eight days old (unless a health condition requires a delay) by a professional called a mohel MOY-ul in Yiddish/Ashkanazi dialect. During the operation, the boy is held by a person (often a grandfather) designated the sandek, which is an honor. Medical anesthetic is not used, but often the baby is given a drop of wine. The ritual is followed by a s’udah, a celebratory meal.

Baby naming, or simchat bat. Jewish children are given Hebrew names. For boys, the name is formally announced, and blessings are recited, at the brit milah ceremony. For girls, the same is done at a separate event, often (but not necessarily) during a regular synagogue service in the first few weeks of the baby’s life. This tradition is primarily observed in more liberal Jewish movements and is not considered religiously required, so practices vary and are evolving. The Hebrew name is used on special occasions such as being called to the Torah and being married, and is typically in the form “Yitzchak ben Avraham” (Isaac, son of Abraham) or (in egalitarian movements) “Yitzchak ben Avraham v’Sarah” (Isaac, son of Abraham and Sarah).

Pidyon ha-ben. Traditionally, by default, firstborn sons are obligated to assist in the Temple in Jerusalem. As there is currently no Temple, this requirement is symbolic, but it is traditional to “redeem” such people from their obligations if possible. Children in priestly families (kohanim, singular kohen, descendants of Moses’s brother Aaron) and Levite families (descendants of Levi) cannot be redeemed from service. Traditionally, the child’s father pays a kohen five silver coins in exchange for the child’s freedom, shortly after the child becomes one month old. Blessings and a meal accompany the ritual.

Bar/bat mitzvah (masculine and feminine singular, respectively; masculine, mixed, or nonspecific plural b’nai mitzvah; feminine plural b’not mitzvah; feminine singular in Yiddish/Ashkenazi dialect bas mitzvah) is the designation that a Jewish person has reached adulthood. Traditionally this is at age 13 for boys/men and age 12 for girls/women. Although a bar/bat mitzvah occurs upon the birthday regardless of whether any ceremony takes place, traditionally the occasion is marked at a service at the synagogue around that time; the honoree will wear a tallit (prayer shawl) for the first time, be called up for an honor (aliyah) for the first time, read from the Torah (first five books of the Bible) and haftarah (a portion of one of the prophets’ books, linked to the week’s Torah portion), and give a d’var Torah, a discourse on the meaning of the week’s Torah portion. A celebratory meal or party often follows. The bar mitzvah for boys dates back to ancient times in varying forms; the bat mitzvah mainly arose in the 20th century. After becoming bar mitzvah, a man is responsible for fulfilling the 613 commandments in the Torah and may be counted toward a minyan (quorum required for certain prayers); in egalitarian movements the same applies to a woman who has become bat mitzvah.

Confirmation is a modern ritual (developed in the 19th century) and is non-obligatory. It is primarily used in more secular movements, and represents the fact that a person has continued formal Jewish education past the bar/bat mitzvah and has now completed that formal education. Rituals vary widely, but generally there is recognition in the synagogue of the confirmation class (all at once, unlike for b’nai mitzvah), religious gifts may be given, and-as with nearly all Jewish events-food is served.

Marriage in Judaism is a complex ritual that varies according to the couple’s and their community’s relationships with Judaism. For the sake of brevity, here we will discuss marriages between a Jewish man and a Jewish woman. Jewish attitudes and approaches toward non-heterosexual marriages are too varied and evolving to summarize here, and Judaism discourages Jewish people from marrying non-Jewish people (intermarriage). In many communities, especially Ashkenazic ones, the wedding is preceded by an aufruf: on the Shabbat (Saturday) before the wedding, the groom is (or in egalitarian congregations, the bride and the groom are) called to the Torah to receive an honor and a blessing, after which the congregation sings to them and pelts them with candy, representing a sweet life. Immediately before the wedding proper, two witnesses sign a ketubah, or marriage contract, which details the groom’s obligations toward the bride (home, food, clothing, sex, faithfulness). In egalitarian movements the wording is adjusted and the bride and groom also sign. The ketubah is frequently a beautiful, illuminated document, and the couple will often display it in their home. The wedding ceremony takes place under a chuppah, a canopy supported on four poles, symbolizing the couple’s home. The bride’s face is veiled-recalling Genesis, in which Laban tricked Jacob into marrying Leah rather than Rachel by having the bride veiled at the ceremony, but to prevent such an occurrence, the groom removes the veil to verify that he will marry the correct person. The bride walks around the groom three or seven times. The groom presents the bride with an object of value (typically a ring), and in egalitarian weddings, vice versa. Seven blessings (Hebrew: sheva b’rachot) formalize the marriage. The groom breaks a glass (or in egalitarian movements, the bride and groom may break a glass together) to remind the community that even at a joyous occasion there is still sorrow (particularly with respect to the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem). The wedding is followed by a festive meal and party. Dancing is common, especially the hora, and it is traditional to lift the bride and groom on chairs. Traditionally, a special version of birkat ha-mazon (grace after meals) is recited.

Divorce is discouraged, but permitted, in Judaism. It is effected by a document called a get. By Jewish law, a husband must present a wife with a get of his own free will, and traditionally (but not by law) she must choose to accept it. The former presents an obvious problem when a wife wishes to be divorced but her husband does not. This is a considerable problem in observant Jewish communities and has led to a variety of attempted solutions of varying acceptance and effectiveness (usually in the form of some sort of prenuptial agreement, but occasionally more creative, less legal forms).

Death. A deceased person’s body is not embalmed; rather, it is ritually washed by members of a group called the chevra kadisha (literally “holy society”), who then dress the body in a simple linen garment (tachrich), place it in a simple wooden casket (no metal, so that the body’s return to dust is hastened), and stay with the deceased while reciting psalms. At the funeral, there is no viewing. Eulogies may be given, and mourners may recite psalms (especially Psalm 23, “The Lord is my shepherd; I shall not want”) and El Malei Rachamim (“God, full of mercy”). Cremation is forbidden, and burial should take place as soon as possible. At the burial, mourners take turns shoveling dirt into the grave, but do not pass the shovel directly to one another. A common myth states that having a tattoo prevents one from being buried in a Jewish cemetery; though Judaism discourages tattoos, that is not true. Proper treatment of the dead is considered a critical mitzvah (both commandment and good deed) because the beneficiary (the deceased person) cannot offer repayment or express gratitude.

Mourning commences immediately upon hearing of a death, when one traditionally recites a blessing that translates to “Blessed are you, Lord our God, king of the Universe, the judge of truth” (“…dayan ha-emet”) and one may tear their clothes. (The latter tradition is sometimes echoed with mourners wearing a ribbon at a funeral, which they ritually tear.) After burial, shiva begins-a seven-day period of mourning (colloquially in English, “sitting shiva”) during which the family of the deceased person receives visitors at home, shares recollections of the deceased, prays communally, and eats traditional comfort foods (e.g., eggs, whose round shape recalls the cycle of life). Mourners minimize vanity (keeping personal grooming to a minimum, covering mirrors, not wearing fancy clothes such as those involving leather) and avoid joyous events. A period of less intense mourning, shloshim (literally, “thirty”) lasts 30 days after burial, during which mourners continue avoiding joyous events, and specifically in the case of people mourning a parent, a less intense period of mourning lasts a year following the death. Mourners recite kaddish yatom (colloquially just kaddish), a prayer praising God but containing no direct reference to death, throughout the mourning period. On each (Hebrew-calendar) anniversary of a death, family members light a yahrzeit candle, which burns for 24 hours in memory of the deceased.

Conversion. A non-Jewish person who wishes to become Jewish may do so with the guidance and approval of a beit din, a Jewish court. Judaism does not seek converts; in fact, it is traditional for a rabbi to refuse a prospective convert three times, and only if they still persist should the rabbi take them as a student. A ger (convert) must study Judaism and explain their motivation to the satisfaction of the beit din, and must immerse in a mikveh (ritual bath). Men must also be circumcised, or if they were already circumcised, a drop of blood must be taken from the penis as a symbolic circumcision (hatafah dam brit). Different Jewish movements have different views on conversion, and some movements will not recognize conversions performed by rabbis from other movements. Conversion may be sought by gentiles wishing to marry a Jewish person, children raised as Jews but who are not technically Jewish (e.g., because their father is Jewish but their mother is not), or simply people who find Judaism attractive for other reasons.

For more information, see the BBC’s page on Judaism or Encyclopedia Mythica’s page on Judaic mythology and religion

To read the texts yourself, see Early Jewish Writings, Sefaria.org

Christianity

People

Saint Peter (1-68 AD)

• aka “Peter the Apostle”, “Peter the Rock”, “Simon Peter”, “Simeon”, “Simon” or “Cephas”
• in Catholic belief, the first Bishop of Rome and thus the first pope
• the leader of the twelve apostles
• Jesus changed his name from Simon to Peter and declared him the “rock [on which] I will build my church”
• Jesus also bestowed upon him the kingdom of heaven and the power to “bind” and “loose” in Heaven and on Earth
• was crucified upside-down by Emperor Nero
• is the namesake of St. Peter’s Basilica in Vatican City

Paul (5-64 AD)

• aka “Paul the Apostle” and “Saint Paul”
• Christian missionary and epistle writer

Saint Patrick (385-461)

• brought Christianity to Ireland

Pope Leo I (400-461)

• convinced Attila the Hun to turn back a planned invasion of Italy

Benedict of Nursia (480-547)

• aka “Saint Benedict”
• founded Benedictines

Pope Gregory I (540-607)

• aka “Saint Gregory the Great” (540-607)
• one of the “Latin Fathers” of the church
• considered the founder of the medieval papacy
• after remarking that some English boys at a slave market were “not Angles, but angels”, he sent Augustine of Canterbury on a mission to Christianize southern Britain
• wrote a Commentary on Job and Pastoral Care
• known as the Dialogist in Eastern traditions
• credited with introducing Gregorian chant, named in his honor, into the Catholic rite

Pope Gregory VII (1025-1085)

• excommunicated Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV during the Investiture Controversy
• Henry sought absolution from Gregory VII by walking barefoot through the snow to the village of Canossa

Pope Urban II (1035-1099)

• ordered the First Crusade
• ambassadors from Byzantine emperor Alexius Komnenos came to the 1095 Council of Piacenza requesting help in reclaiming the Holy Land from the Seljuk Turks
• responded by calling the Council of Clermont, where he urged a crusade with the phrase “Deus Vult,” or “God wills it”
• the subsequent First Crusade lasted from 1096 to 1099

Thomas Becket (1119-1170)

• aka “Saint Thomas of Canterbury”, “Thomas of London”, and “Thomas à Becket”
• archbishop of Canterbury
• murdered by Henry II’s men

Pope Innocent III (1160-1216)

• ordered the disastrous Fourth Crusade and excommunicated Venetian crusaders who changed course from Jerusalem to sack Constantinople
• also initiated the Albigensian Crusade against the Cathars of southern France
• convened the Fourth Lateran Council, which defined the dogma of transubstantiation and required Muslims and Jews to wear identifying clothing
• excommunicated King John in 1209 for refusing to recognize the appointment of Stephen Langton as Archbishop of Canterbury

Francis of Assisi (1181-1226)

• aka “Saint Francis” and “Saint Francis of Assisi”
• founded Franciscans

Pope Clement V (1260-1314)

• moved the seat of the papcy from Rome to the French city of Avignon, where it remained for 67 years in a period nicknamed the “Babylonian Captivity”

John Wycliffe (1328-1384)

• reformer
• Bible translator

Jan Hus (1370-1415)

• religious reformer
• burned at stake

Thomas à Kempis (1380-1471)

• wrote Imitation of Christ

Pope Alexander VI (1431-1503)

• prominent member of the Borgia family and the father of Cesare and Lucrezia
• excommunicated the Florentine friar Savonarola in 1498
• accused of inviting prostitutes with his son Cesare into the Papal Palace to host the scandalous “Banquet of the Chestnuts”
• assigned New World territory to Spain in the bull Inter Caetera, which became the basis for the Treaty of Tordesillas

Pope Julius II (1443-1513)

• nicknamed the “Warrior Pope” for his military ambition in expanding the Papal States
• joined the League of Cambrai to resist Venetian expansion in northern Italy
• instituted the Swiss Guard and commissioned michelangelo to paint the Sistine Chapel ceiling
• Michelangelo created a number of notable sculptures as part of a plan for Julius II’s tomb including the Rebellious Slave, Dying Slave, and a “Horned Moses” based on a mistranslation of the Vulgate

Pope Leo X (1475-1521)

• son of Lorenzo de Medici whose papacy included the beginning of the Protestant Reformation
• revived the unpopular sale of indulgences to fund the construction of St. Peter’s Basilica
• Martin Luther responded by publishing his 85 Theses, which Leo denounced in the papal bull Exsurge Domine
• was given a white elephant named Hanno by Manuel I of Portugal at his coronation; the animal was buried beneath the Vatican after its death

Pope Clement VII (1478-1534)

• pope during the 1527 Sack of Rome and refused to annul Henry VIII’s marriage to Catherine of Aragon
• not to be confused with Antipope Clement VII, whose election in 1378 began the Western Schism

Martin Luther (1483-1546)

• leader in Protestant Reformation
• posted 95 theses 1517

Huldrych Zwingli (1484-1531)

• leader of Protestant Reformation in Switzerland

Thomas Cranmer (1489-1556)

• wrote Book of Common Prayer
• worked for Henry VIII

Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556)

• aka “Saint Ignatius of Loloya”
• founded Jesuits

Pope Gregory XIII (1502-1585)

• introduced the Gregorian Calendar in 1582 to correct the previous Julian Calendar

John Calvin (1509-1564)

• leader in Protestant Reformation

John Knox (1514-1572)

• leader in Protestant Reformation

William Brewster (1566-1644)

• headed Pilgrims

John Cotton (1585-1652)

• Puritan theologian

Roger Williams (1603-1683)

• championed separation of church and state
• founded Rhode Island

John Biddle (1615-1662)

• founder of English Unitarianism

George Fox (1624-1691)

• founded Society of Friends (Quakers)

Cotton Mather (1668-1728)

• orthodox Puritan
• founded Yale

Johnathan Edwards (1703-1758)

• preacher in Great Awakening

Heinrich Muhlenberg (1711-1787)

• organized Lutheran Church in America

Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768-1834)

• Protestant theologian

William Ellery Channing (1780-1842)

• spokesman for Unitarianism

Pope Pius IX (1792-1878)

• the longest-reigning pope in history
• resigned during Italian unification and remained a “prisoner in the Vatican” after the capture of Rome led to the annexation of the Papal State
• rejected a Law of Guarantees that sought to define the rights of the Church within the Kingdom of Italy
• defined the dogma of the Immaculate Conception in the decree Ineffabilis Deus
• established papal infallibility at the First Vatican Council
• released a controversial list of 80 heresies in his Syllabus of Errors

John Henry Newman (1801-1890)

• Catholic cardinal
• led Oxford Movement
• wrote Apologia pro Vita Sua

Lyman Abbot (1835-1922)

• advocate for Christian Socialism

Dwight L. Moody (1837-1899)

• evangelist

Charles T. Russell (1852-1916)

• aka “Pastor Russell”
• founded Jehovah’s Witnesses

William Inge (1860-1954)

• explored mystic aspects of Christianity

Billy Sunday (1862-1935)

• evangelist

Albert Schweitzer (1875-1965)

• medical missionary

Pope Pius XII (1876-1958)

• signed the Reichskonkordat with Nazi Germany in 1933
• served as pope during World War II
• spoke infallibly to define the dogma of the Assumption of Mary

Pierre Teilhard de Chardin (1881-1955)

• Catholic priest
• paleontologist
• wrote The Divine Milieu
• note that the surname is “Teilhard de Chardin” so you’ll need to say all of it

Karl Barth (1886-1968)

• Protestant theologian

Emil Brunner (1889-1966)

• Protestant theologian

Norman Vincent Peale (1898-1993)

• wrote The Power of Positive Thinking

Dietrich Bonhoeffer (1906-1945)

• Lutheran theologian executed by Nazis

Thomas Merton (1915-1968)

• Trappist monk
• wrote The Seven Storey Mountain

Pope John Paul II (1920-2005)

• from Poland, making him the first non-Italian pope in over 400 years
• shot by Mehmet Ali Agca, a member of the Turkish terrorist group Grey Wolves, in 1981
• survived and forgave Agca while visiting him in prison
• defended the sanctity of life in his encyclical Evangelium Vitae and declared evolution to be compatible with Catholic theology
• denounced Marxist “liberation theology” in Latin America and may have inspired the Solidarity movement during a 1979 visit to his home country

Pope Emeritus Benedict XVI (1927-present)

• resigned the papacy in 2013, becoming the first person to so since the 15th century

Pope Francis (1936-present)

• served as the Archbishop of Buenos Aires before ascending to the papacy upon the resignation of Benedict XVI
• first Jesuit pope
• first pope from the Americas
• first pope from outside of Europe since Gregory III in the 8th century
• responded “Who am I to judge?” when asked in 2013 for his view on gay clergy members
• had a historic meeting with Patriarch Kirill of the Russian Orthodox Church in Havana in 2016; the two issued a joint declaration denouncing the persecution of Christians in the Middle East

For more information, see the Catholic Encyclopedia, Qwiz5’s article on the Council of Trent, the BBC’s page on Christianity, Godchecker’s page on “the Christian pantheon”

To read the texts for yourself, see Bible Gateway and the Christian Classics Ethereal Library

Islam

Muhammad (c. AD 570–632) was a prophet who founded Islam. Born in Mecca in the Year of the Elephant, he is said to have been visited by the angel Jibril (or Gabriel) in the cave of Hira, where Jibril revealed the Qur’an to him. During the Night Journey, Muhammad is said to have traveled on the horse Buraq to “the farthest mosque” and to have visited heaven. Because of plots against him in Mecca, Muhammad traveled from Mecca to Medina along with his followers and established the Islamic community there. When war broke out between his followers and the people of Mecca, he served as a military commander, winning several engagements, including the Battle of Badr. His death led to disputes among his followers as to whether Abu Bakr or Ali was his true successor.

Qur’an (or Koran): Arabic for “recitation,” it is the most sacred scripture of Islam. The Qur’an is subdivided into 114 chapters, called suras, which — except the first one — are arranged in descending order of length. According to Muslim belief, the angel Jibril (Gabriel) visited the prophet Muhammad in AD 610 and revealed the work to him. Various suras discuss absolute submission to Allah (God), happiness in paradise versus torture in hell, and the mercy, compassion, and justice of Allah. The third caliph, Uthman (644–656), formalized the text after many of his oral reciters were killed in battle.

Hadith: A hadith is a report of the words or actions of a Muslim religious figure, most frequently the prophet Muhammad. Each consists of a matn, or text of the original oral law itself, as well as an isnad, or chain of authorities through which it has been passed by word of mouth through the generations. Collectively, the hadith point Muslims toward the Sunna, or practice of the Prophet, which together with the Qur’an forms the basis for shari’a, usually translated as Islamic law.

See Qwiz5 articles for more information:

• Ramadan
• Pillars of Islam

For more information about Islam as a whole, see the BBC’s page on Islam